Medicinal alien plants of Arunachal Pradesh : Review , Alien are founded in Arunachal Pradesh

  

     Accompanying with the recent rise in transcontinental trading and travelling, an imcreasing number of plants have been either intentionally or unintentionally translocated far from their native areas (Khuroo et al., 2007). Intentional translocation includes the introduction of non-native plants for agricultural or ornamental purpose. Those introduced plants often escape from the cultivated places to wild habitat if the environmental condition permits. Unintentional introduction occurs with the small mobile seeds that dispersed by animals or get mixed in import goods (Khuroo et al., 2007; Sharma et al., 2005). 

        Those translocated plants in the non-native lands, called alien plants (Pysek et al., 2004), have attracted the broad attention from various fields such as biology, ecology and economy. Some alien plants, often cultivated, provide food, fuel, fodder or medicine, whereas others cause negative impacts on agricultural production, forest regeneration, livestock grazing, nalive ecosystem, or human health (Kohli et al., 2006; Pimentel et al., 2000; Sharma et al., 2005; Weber, 2003). Moreover, invasive alien plants give complex effects on local! cultural systems (Pfeiffer and Voeks, 2008). 

        Arunachal Pradesh, the northernmost state of North East India, is known for its floral diversity and endemism (Behera et al., 2002; Hegde, 2003), and many plants are used for food, medicine, resin, fiber, handicrafts, or cultural rituals (Kagyung et al., 2010; Rethy et al., 2010; Srivastava and Adi community, 2009; Srivastava and Nyishi community, 2010; Srivastava et al., 2010; Tag et al., 2008). Several alien plants were translocated in this region, and they have both beneficial and harmful effect on local environment and livelihood (Kosaka et al., 2010). As change is a normal characteristic of ecosystems in response to disturbance and environmental change through time (Hobbs et al., 2009), the broad perspective is needed to consider the appropriate plant resource management plans. 

        An increasing number of alien plants spread all over the world, including North Fast India. The ethnobotanical literatures on Adi, Apatani, Memba and Nyishi communities were consulted to compile the information about medicinal use of alien plants in Arunachal Pradesh. Roadside distribution pattern of alien plants was also surveyed in the region in 2008 and 2009. The ethnobotanical literatures reported a total of 203 species, representing 149 genera and 80 families, of wild medicinal plants in the 4 communities. Among them, 11 species were identified as alien plants: Eryngium foetidum, Ageratum conyzoides, Bidens pilosa var. minor, Chromolaena odorata, Conyza bonariensis, Crassocephalum crepidioides, Mikania micrantha, Ricinus communis, Hyptis suaveolens, Scoparia dulcis, Solanum viarum. They were originated in South  America or Africa, and unintentionally introduced into this region. Their medicinal uses are against body pain, diarrhea and dysentery, headache, snake bite, stomach ache, wound and so on. 

Medicinal use of alien plants in Arunachal Pradesh 

The ethnobotanical literatures (Kagyung et al., 2010; Rethy et al., 2010; Srivastava and Adi community, 2009, Srivastava and Nyishi community, 2010; Srivastava et al., 2010; Tag et al., 2008) reported a total of 203 species, representing 149 genera and 80 families, of wild medicinal plants in the 4 communities (Adi, Apatani, Memba and Nyishi). Among them, a total of 11 species were identified as alien plants (Table 1). 

Eryngium foetidum L., an annual herb Originated in South America, is cultivated in home garden or field, and often escapes in the wild habitat. Adi, Apatani and Nyishi people apply the paste of its stem and leaves on forehead in headache. Seedpowder is used in madness (Srivastava and Adi community, 2009; Srivastava and Nyishi community, 2010; Srivastava et al., 2010). 

        Ageratum conyzoides L. (Figure 2a), an annual herb originated in South America, grows in the wild habitat. Adi, Apatani and Nyishi people apply its leaf paste on swollen parts to relieve pain. Plant juice is applied in red eye (conjunctivitis) twice a day. Leaf paste and leaf juice are applied on cuts and wound to stop bleeding and to. heal quickly. Plants are pounded and made into pills of the size of pea. One pill is taken to cure blood dysentery (colitis) thrice a day (Srivastava and Adi community, 2009; Srivastava and Nyishi community, 2010; Srivastava et al., 2010). Memba people use the whole plant for blood clotting and wound healing (Rethy et al., 2010). 

    Bidens pilosa L. var. minor (Blume) Scherff. (Figure 2b), an annual herb originated in South America, grows in the wild habitat. Adi people pour the leaf juice into ear and nostril against infection and ache. Leaves are cooked and consumed to cure high blood pressure and insomnia. Stem powder is taken with hot water in asthma and jaundice (Tag et al., 2008).  

Chromolaena odorata (L.) R. M. King & H. Rob. (Figure 2c), a perennial herb or shrub originated in South America, grows in the wild habitat. Adi people apply the leaf juice and paste in cuts and wounds to stop bleeding and to relieve pain. The leaf juice is applied on blister and general skin irritation, and also on forehead in severe headache and cough (Srivastava and Adi community, 2009; Tag et al., 2008). Nyishi people use fomentation with its young leaves to relieve headache and fever (Srivastava and Adi community, 2009). 

Conyza bonariensis (L.) Cronquist, an annual herb originated in South America, grows in the wild habitat. Adi and Apatani people inhale the vapor of leaves in sinus problems (Srivastava and Adi community, 2009; Srivastava et al., 2010). 

Crassocephalum crepidioides (Benth.) S.Moore , an annual herb originated in Africa, grows in the wild habitat. Adi and Apatani people apply the leaf juice on cuts to prevent bleeding, to relieve pain and to heal the wound quickly (Srivastava and Adi community, 2009; Srivastava et al., 2010). 

Mikania micrantha Kunth , a perennial climber originated in South America, grows in the wild habitat. Adi people consume the leaf paste during mild stomach pain and diarrhea, and apply as antiseptic in newly cut wounds. Leaf juice is mixed with salt and taken during dysentery (Kagyung et al., 2010; Tag et al., 2008). Apatani people apply juice of stem and leaves in skin disease including itching and skin allergy. Juice mixed with water is used as germicides during bath. Leaf juice is also used to stop bleeding and to heal wounds. Leaves are warmed above fire and kept on the eyes to cure any type of eye trouble (Srivastava et al., 2010). Memba people use the leaves in blood clotting and wound healing (Rethy et al. 2010). Nyishi people use leaf juice for healing wounds and apply on cuts to stop bleeding. Leaves are warmed above fire and kept on the eyes 4-5 times to cure any type of eye trouble. The plants are used as a remedy for snake bite and scorpion sting (Srivastava and Nyishi community, 2010). 

Ricinus communis L., an annual herb originated in Africa, is cultivated in home garden and often escapes in the wild habitat. Adi people apply the leaf paste over joint and muscle to heal bone fracture, muscle ache and joint pain (Tag et al., 2008). Nyishi people use oil obtained from the seeds for joint pain. Application of young twigs in vagina causes abortion (Srivastava and Nyishi community, 2010). 

Hyptis suaveolens (L.) Poit., an annual herb originated in South America, grows in the wild habitat. Apatani people rub the leaf juice or pounded tender twigs against skin disorders and itching. Children take a bath with the water mixing the leaf juice for the treatment of cough and cold (Srivastava et al., 2010). 

Scoparia dulcis L., an annual or perennial herb originated in South America, grows in the wild habitat. Adi and Nyishi people take the paste of plants with the Curcuma longa rhizome twice a day for the treatment of jaundice and diabetes (Srivastava and Adi community, 2009; Srivastava and Nyishi community, 2010). 

Solanum viarum Dunal , an perennial herb originated in South America, grows in the wild habitat. Adi people use the fleshy part of raw fruit to relieve toothache. Fruits are roasted and eaten during diarrhea (Tag et al., 2008). 

Characteristics of alien plants in Arunachal Pradesh 

Among the 11 alien plants used for medicinal purpose, five species (Table 2) were observed in the field survey in Arunachal Pradesh (Figure 1). All the five species were originated in South America and unintentionally introduced into this region. C. odorata occurred at the highest frequency (68.4%), followed by S. viarum, A. conyzoides, M. micrantha, and B. pilosa var. minor. All the five species grew in arable field as well as in roadside, 2 in grassland, | in settlement area. Three species were only reproduced by seed and 2 species by both seed and vegetative reproduction. Aside from direct or indirect anthropogenic intervention, common dispersal modes included anemochory, endozoochory and ombrohydrochory. B. pilosa var. minor also depends on epizoochory (Table 2). A. conyzoides, B. pilosa var. minor and S. viarum grew in the widest range of habitats from tropical to temperate zones . C. odorata and M. micrantha were recorded below 1600 m.

Beneficial use and harmful effect of alien plants 

Some alien plants mentioned above are uscd by the local communities for the other beneficial purpose in Arunachal Pradesh. Leaves of E. foetidum are used to make chutney with leaves of Centella asiatica by Adi, Apatani and Nyishi people (Kagyung et al., 2010; Srivastava and Adi community, 2009; Srivastava and Nyishi community, 2010; Srivastava et al., 2010; Rethy et al., 2010). Whole plant of C. crepidioides is eaten either fresh or boiled as vegetable by Adi and Apatani people (Srivastava & Adi community, 2009; Srivastava et al., 2010). Fruit paste of S. viarum mixed with ginger is taken as salad by Adi people (Tag et al., 2008). , 

Other alien plants were known to be harmful weeds in the local environment of North East India. A. conyzoides, C. odorata and M. micrantha were the major weeds in swidden fields and fallow forests, decreasing crop production and transforming forest ecosystem (Kohli et al., 2006; Swamy and Ramakrishnan, 1987; Takematsu and Ichizen, 1987). As livestock does not prefer to eat A. conyzoides, C. odorata and M. micrantha, they increasingly spread and constrain the growth of local vegetation including various useful species. 

Introduction pathway of alien plants 

Some alien plants were introduced into Himalayan regions by historical trading (Khuroo et al, 2007). There had been a trading route between Assam plain and Tibetan plateau until the IndoChina war in 1962, and the region currently called Arunachal Pradesh harbored the stopping points (Choudhury, 1981; Choudhury, 1996). This trade brought rice, iron, lac, fur, water buffalo's horn, pearl, coral, Assamese silk from Assam to Tibet, whereas, wool, gold, rock salt, musk, horse, Chinese silk, bronze and brass bell, sword, beeswax and red pepper from Tibet to Assam (Choudhury, 1981; Choudhury, 1996). As the local residents regarded A. conyzoides and C. crepidioides to grow since early times, they might be introduced into this region via old trading route. 

Pickering and Hill (2007) suggested that recent road construction and road use facilitates the establishment of invasive alien plants in mountain regions. This view was supported by recollections of elderly residents at the study sites. In the vicinity 

of Along (270 m), residents reported S. viarum was found after a road was built to Assam before 1990. In Ziro (1600 m), S. viarum spreads after the road was connected from Assam in the 1950s. The spread of S. viarum was related to the introduction of cattle from Assam that disseminated its seed (Table 2). 

Unintentionally introduced alien plants may subsequently disseminate seed or vegetative propagules by wind, water or animals (Table 2). Burning in shifting cultivation also promotes the establishment of C. odorata (Takematsu and Ichizen, 1987) and M. micrantha (Swamy and Ramakrishnan, 1987). 

The people in Along believed that M. micrantha was brought by Japanese army during the world war second in the 1940s, and named it Japanese Lota (Japanese climber). The people in Yazari believed that M. micrantha was brought by Chinese army during the Indo-China war in 1962, and named it Chinese Lota (Chinese climber). As there is no historical evidence on introduction of M. micrantha by the armies, the wartime disturbance might facilitate the spread of this plant. 

Conclusion 

Several alien plants have been translocated in Arunachal Pradesh, and they are now,growing in arable field, roadside, grassland or settlement area. They are replacing the local vegetation and transforming the ecosystem in the region. Especially, preceding studies regarded A. conyzoides, C. odorata and M. micrantha were the major weeds giving negative effect on crop production and local ecosystem. On the other hand, local residents recognized their medicinal value and use them for multiple medicinal purposes against body pain, diarrhea and dysentery, headache, snake bite, stomach ache, wound and so on. E. foetidum leaves, C. crepidioides \eaves, and S. viarum fruits are taken as vegetable as well. The appropriate environmental management will be achieved not merely by excluding alien plants to keep the primary local ecosystem as it is, but also by incorporating the views of local residents and taking into account the dynamic aspect of human-nature relationship. 

References

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 Major alien medicinal plants growing in the wild in Arunachal Pradesh. (a) Ageratum conyzoides at Itanagar, 250m, (b) Bidens pilosa var. minor at Yazali, 640m, (c) Chromolaena odorata at \tanagar, 250m, (d) Crassocephalum crepidioides at Yazali, 640m, (e) Mikania micrantha at Along, 270m, (f) Solanum viarum at Ziro, 1600m. 

Address of Y. Kosaka: Graduate School of Asianand African Area Studies, Kyoto University, YoshidaHonmachi, Sakyo-ku, 606-8501, Kyoto, Japan